By Lynda Huckestein, Project Chemist, Kelso, WA
Aquatic Humic Substances (AHS) result from the decomposition of plant and animal residues and are found in soil, sediment, and water. They are widespread in nature and are mostly comprised from naturally occurring dissolved organic matter in water.
This article describes the background, stages and the new deadlines for public water systems to comply with the most current disinfectants and disinfection byproducts rule.
By Dr. Harlan H. Bengtson, PE
Background on Disinfection and Disinfection Byproducts
Jersey City, NJ was the first U.S. city to routinely disinfect its municipal water supply, starting in 1908.1 Soon after, thousands of cities and towns across the country began to do the same and this dramatically decreased the prevalence of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid. To demonstrate, the incidence rate of typhoid fever in the U.S. dropped from about 100 cases per 100,000 people in 1900 to 33.8 cases per 100,000 people in 1920.2 By 2006, this rate had dropped to 0.1 cases per 100,000 people.3
Chlorine has been used to disinfect water for almost a century due to its ability to kill bacteria and viruses in water. The use of chlorine as a disinfectant has been an effective contribution to public health eliminating plagues such as cholera and typhoid, and reducing the incidence of intestinal illness and other health problems caused by waterborne pathogens such as cryptosporidium. The benefits of disinfection, however, do not come without an effect.
Depending on the disinfection procedure used (chlorination, chloramines, bromine, ozone etc.) and the chemical composition of the water prior to disinfection, many different organic chemical disinfection byproducts can form in drinking water. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are a byproduct of chlorine disinfection and to a lesser degree, disinfection using chloroamines. The THMs (chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform) are formed when free chlorine combines with organic matter, like decaying vegetation commonly found in lakes and reservoirs. Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM) are regulated by the EPA at a maximum allowable annual average of 80 parts per billion. Some of the THMs are very volatile and will vaporize into air easily, so they may be inhaled while showering, however, the EPA has determined that this exposure is minimal compared to that from consumption. The Levels of THMs formed can vary widely on a number of factors including temperature, amount of chlorine used, season, and amount of plant material in the water, among others.
Some drinking water systems use chloroamines as a residual disinfection agent in place of chlorine. Chloroamine is not as reactive as chlorine and less THMs are formed. However, there are also drawbacks to chloroamine use. Chloroamine may cause nitrification and corrosion and may also increase exposure to other disinfection byproducts, such as N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA).
EPA Method 524.2 is used to analyze samples for TTHMs. This method involves concentrating the THMs from a water sample using a technique known as purge and trap. This technique isolates the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the water. The VOCs are then desorbed into a gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC/MS) where they are separated, their identity is confirmed, and their concentrations are determined. Standard reporting limits for individual TTH with this method are 0.5 ยต/L
